Chris Demmons
February 9, 2010
ENC-1102-431
Professor Wilson
Misinformation in Complex Systems
Annotated Bibliography
Annotated Bibliography
My research paper will cover the societal effects of misinformation in complex systems. Imagine for a moment that a few simple lines of text in an electronic mail could cost two first world governments millions of dollars, force a national charity to move their headquarters, and cause you to be fired from your job or ostracized by your friends? Those lines of text are not a new super virus developed by the Chinese government, they are emails and social media posts written by your friends, family and co-workers. The Craig Shergold chain email forced the British postal service to process millions of letters over the course of more than twenty years. A mutation of the same email caused the Make-A-Wish foundation to move its headquarters and provide a special toll free number to disseminate information about the hoax. The U.S. Postal Service is still receiving mail for Make-A-Wish at its Atlanta processing center which must be stored at considerable cost. The "don't add" chain status on Facebook, which runs: "Don't add Person Name, he is a(n) undesirable thing," typical examples of undesirable things have included accusations of pedophilia, hacking, and other criminal misdeeds. It is not difficult to see how messages like these spread to thousands of people could result in serious real world consequences.
A viral message is one passed on through a chain of receivers, who then in turn become senders to a new generation of receivers. This is best visualized by the game of Telephone that many people played as children. A group of ten or more kids form a line, far enough away from each other that a whisper cannot be easily heard more than one position away. The child at the far end of the line whispers a simple, easily remembered message or phrase to the second child, who in turn whispers it to the next and so on until the message reaches the end of the line. By the time the message reaches its final destination and is compared with the original message, it has usually undergone a dramatic transformation and is no longer recognizable as the original. On the internet, each sender may have millions of receivers within a single generation or hop of the message. For instance, popular fantasy author Neil Gaiman has approximately one and half million followers on the social networking site Twitter. On Facebook, he has more than one hundred thousand fans and his fan page has only been available for a few days. His blog has a very large circulation, I do not have specific traffic data but from my experience on the web, I would conservatively estimate it at somewhere between three to five hundred thousand unique visits per day. While a given person may receive messages from Mr. Gaiman on more than one channel, when Mr. Gaiman speaks an American city approximately the size of Philadelphia is listening. Each one of those listeners may not have as large a group of followers, but they can retransmit the message to others over a variety of channels and so on. Clearly Mr. Gaiman is not posting messages about sending post cards to Craig Shergold or recommending you avoid friending someone on Facebook. I merely use him to provide a specific example of how the internet is similar, but at the same time a great deal more complex than the traditional game of Telephone.
So what is being done? Not much at the moment. This issue is not seen as a social problem by the public, and most people hold erroneous belief that what happens on the internet stays there. Many agencies including the United States Marine Corps, most major corporations and our own college have policies that forbid, either expressly or implicitly, these kinds of messages. Despite these admonitions, as many emails and social networking posts are made from work or school as are made from home computers. The National Science Foundation has provided a grant to study email chain petitions. It is a good start, but as I will show, this study is too limited in scope. The National Security Agency is currently studying social networks as well according to several journalistic sources. The details of this study are unavailable, and are unlikely to focus on this aspect of social networking given the N.S.A.'s mission of communication security and surveillance. There is no body of previous research to draw on, remember that the internet as an instrument of mass communication is only a little over twenty years old.
Not all messages are dangerous, many are chain letters, sappy stories, political polemics and cautionary tales. I feel these messages are just as important to study as messages that present a threat to our society. In communications theory, these messages are considered "noise," and are regarded solely as a negative. According to economics, which assumes human beings are rational actors - always striving to maximize our advantage in a given scenario, these messages should not exist. I believe these messages can not only provide valuable data on how we interact as human beings, they can also provide valuable insights into the hopes, fears and dreams of each sender. I hope to answer the truly important questions regarding this phenomena. How old are these kinds of communication? What traits does the average transmitter possess? Why are these messages sent? Can anything be done to stop them, and if so, should we? Are new forms of social media causing any changes in the way these messages are transmitted, received or their mutation rate? I will pursue the answers to these questions by examining the relevant academic information on communications of this kind which does exist, and through my own original research. My research will include observations of past messages, those currently found in the wild, and through information gleaned from surveys and interviews with people who transmit these sorts of messages on the internet.
A viral message is one passed on through a chain of receivers, who then in turn become senders to a new generation of receivers. This is best visualized by the game of Telephone that many people played as children. A group of ten or more kids form a line, far enough away from each other that a whisper cannot be easily heard more than one position away. The child at the far end of the line whispers a simple, easily remembered message or phrase to the second child, who in turn whispers it to the next and so on until the message reaches the end of the line. By the time the message reaches its final destination and is compared with the original message, it has usually undergone a dramatic transformation and is no longer recognizable as the original. On the internet, each sender may have millions of receivers within a single generation or hop of the message. For instance, popular fantasy author Neil Gaiman has approximately one and half million followers on the social networking site Twitter. On Facebook, he has more than one hundred thousand fans and his fan page has only been available for a few days. His blog has a very large circulation, I do not have specific traffic data but from my experience on the web, I would conservatively estimate it at somewhere between three to five hundred thousand unique visits per day. While a given person may receive messages from Mr. Gaiman on more than one channel, when Mr. Gaiman speaks an American city approximately the size of Philadelphia is listening. Each one of those listeners may not have as large a group of followers, but they can retransmit the message to others over a variety of channels and so on. Clearly Mr. Gaiman is not posting messages about sending post cards to Craig Shergold or recommending you avoid friending someone on Facebook. I merely use him to provide a specific example of how the internet is similar, but at the same time a great deal more complex than the traditional game of Telephone.
So what is being done? Not much at the moment. This issue is not seen as a social problem by the public, and most people hold erroneous belief that what happens on the internet stays there. Many agencies including the United States Marine Corps, most major corporations and our own college have policies that forbid, either expressly or implicitly, these kinds of messages. Despite these admonitions, as many emails and social networking posts are made from work or school as are made from home computers. The National Science Foundation has provided a grant to study email chain petitions. It is a good start, but as I will show, this study is too limited in scope. The National Security Agency is currently studying social networks as well according to several journalistic sources. The details of this study are unavailable, and are unlikely to focus on this aspect of social networking given the N.S.A.'s mission of communication security and surveillance. There is no body of previous research to draw on, remember that the internet as an instrument of mass communication is only a little over twenty years old.
Not all messages are dangerous, many are chain letters, sappy stories, political polemics and cautionary tales. I feel these messages are just as important to study as messages that present a threat to our society. In communications theory, these messages are considered "noise," and are regarded solely as a negative. According to economics, which assumes human beings are rational actors - always striving to maximize our advantage in a given scenario, these messages should not exist. I believe these messages can not only provide valuable data on how we interact as human beings, they can also provide valuable insights into the hopes, fears and dreams of each sender. I hope to answer the truly important questions regarding this phenomena. How old are these kinds of communication? What traits does the average transmitter possess? Why are these messages sent? Can anything be done to stop them, and if so, should we? Are new forms of social media causing any changes in the way these messages are transmitted, received or their mutation rate? I will pursue the answers to these questions by examining the relevant academic information on communications of this kind which does exist, and through my own original research. My research will include observations of past messages, those currently found in the wild, and through information gleaned from surveys and interviews with people who transmit these sorts of messages on the internet.
Annotated Bibliography
Ariely, Dan. Predictably Irrational. New York: Harper, 2008. Print.
Ariley's work is concerned with human decision making in the field of behavioral
economics, and can provide insight into why people forward viral messages though
it does not address this topic directly.
Boese, Alex. The Museum of Hoaxes. New York: Penguin, 2003. Print.
Boese, Alex. The Museum of Hoaxes. New York: Penguin, 2003. Print.
Details several viral messages in a variety of media from nineteen-ninety to two
thousand and eight.
Biehl, Chuck. "ADMIN: Unathrized (sic) Chain Letter Hurts Make-A-Wish (fwd)."
dimacs.rutgers.edu listserv. dimacs.rutgers.edu listserv. 11 Nov. 1996. Web. 12 Feb.
2010.
dimacs.rutgers.edu listserv. dimacs.rutgers.edu listserv. 11 Nov. 1996. Web. 12 Feb.
2010.
An entry from the rutgers.edu listserv from 1996. This shows the extreme longevity
of the Craig Shergold hoax, as well as describing the effects on the Make-A-Wish
foundation.
of the Craig Shergold hoax, as well as describing the effects on the Make-A-Wish
foundation.
Brunvard, Jan Harold. American Folklore: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, 1998.
NetLibrary. Web. 10 Feb. 2010.
NetLibrary. Web. 10 Feb. 2010.
Brunvard describes how technical folklore has trickled down to the less adept
computer users, and describes how chain letters are often considered a serious
threat to system resources and security.
Bryant, Ron. "Majority in Unscientific Fox News Poll Pegs Tea Party Movement 'Racist'."
The Raw Story. Rawstory.com. 11 Feb. 2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.
The Raw Story. Rawstory.com. 11 Feb. 2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.
This article describes an evolution in viral media. Fox news created an unscientific
poll asking users' opinion of the tea party movement. A member of the Democratic
Underground posted a link to the poll on the social bookmark aggregator Reddit.
When the poll produced results contrary to what most conservatives expected, they
accused Reddit users of skewing the data.
poll asking users' opinion of the tea party movement. A member of the Democratic
Underground posted a link to the poll on the social bookmark aggregator Reddit.
When the poll produced results contrary to what most conservatives expected, they
accused Reddit users of skewing the data.
Cluely, Graham. "The Automation Labs Facebook Security Scare." Sophos. Sophos. 3
Feb. 2010. Web. 5 Feb 2010.
Feb. 2010. Web. 5 Feb 2010.
This is a debunking of a widely propagated viral status on Facebook came from a
leading British internet security company. The hoax accuses a bot developer for the
leading British internet security company. The hoax accuses a bot developer for the
Farmville game on Facebook of accessing private user data. This source will provide
background and technical detail of an emergent multimedia hoax.
Donovan, Pamela. No Way of Knowing: Crime, Urban Legends and the Internet. New
York: Taylor, 2004. Wilson. Web. 6 Feb. 2010.
York: Taylor, 2004. Wilson. Web. 6 Feb. 2010.
This source focuses specifically upon viral messages related to crime, why these
messages have become more common in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries and
why debunking at the mass media and personal levels are often ineffective. This source
will be reviewed as we look at why senders transmit viral messages regardless of content,
why these stories are widely believed and why traditional debunking is often ineffective.
This source will also be used for comparison when looking at organization strategies for
dealing with viral messages.
messages have become more common in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries and
why debunking at the mass media and personal levels are often ineffective. This source
will be reviewed as we look at why senders transmit viral messages regardless of content,
why these stories are widely believed and why traditional debunking is often ineffective.
This source will also be used for comparison when looking at organization strategies for
dealing with viral messages.
Facebook Security. "Facebook Security Links: The Automation Labs Facebook Security
Scare. | Graham Cluely's Blog" Facebook. Facebook Security. 3 Feb. 2010. Web. 5
Feb. 2010.
Scare. | Graham Cluely's Blog" Facebook. Facebook Security. 3 Feb. 2010. Web. 5
Feb. 2010.
Facebook security's link to Sopho's blog entry on the Automation Labs Hoax. This cite,
and the user comments associated with it show how Facebook inadvertently gave the
hoax additional credibility.
Ford, Hannah. "another chain letter..." Facebook. Facebook Chain letters group. 20 Jan.
2010. Web. 6 Feb. 2010.
Ford, Hannah. "another chain letter..." Facebook. Facebook Chain letters group. 20 Jan.
2010. Web. 6 Feb. 2010.
A chain letter spotted in the wild by a Facebook user in a user group dedicated to
chain letters sent via the internet.
Gaiman, Neil. "Fascinating Paperchase plagarism over at http://bit.ly/cdrzKZ. Bad
Paperchase." 11 Feb. 2010. Web. 11 Feb 2010.
Paperchase." 11 Feb. 2010. Web. 11 Feb 2010.
This shows another evolution in viral messages. Mr. Gaiman read an account of an
Etsy.com artist accusing a large British consumer goods manufacturer of plagiarizing
her work. This is a cite of the message he sent out a message on the Twitter social
network concerning it. This also represents a measure of his followers on Twitter.
Gaiman, Neil. "Neil Gaiman's Facebook Fan Page." Facebook. 12 Feb. 2010. Web. 12 Feb.
2010.
2010.
Neil Gaiman's Facbook page, this demonstrates how many fans he had on Facebook in
a period of less than a week. It demonstrates Mr. Gaiman's reach in this medium.
Gaiman, Neil. "With Great Power comes, well, something..." Neil Gaiman's Journal. 11 Feb.
2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.
2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.
This entry from author Neil Gaiman's blog discusses the results of what happened after he
posted a message on Twitter regarding a dispute between a small crafter on Etsy and a large
British consumer goods firm. This shows how a public message can unexpectedly become viral.
Hameed, Bilal. "ALERT: AUTOMATION LABS DOES NOT HAVE ACCESS TO YOUR
FACEBOOK PROFILE." All Facebook. All Facebook. 3 Feb 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2010.
Hameed, Bilal. "ALERT: AUTOMATION LABS DOES NOT HAVE ACCESS TO YOUR
FACEBOOK PROFILE." All Facebook. All Facebook. 3 Feb 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2010.
This is one of the earliest mentions of the Automation Labs hoax that appeared on
the web outside Facebook. This particular hoax is of interest because it is multi-medium, showing
up in slightly different forms on both Facebook and in forwarded electronic mail.
KMBC. "Facebook Rumor Hits Gas Station Owner." KMBC.com. KMBC.com. 27 Jan.
2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2010.
KMBC. "Facebook Rumor Hits Gas Station Owner." KMBC.com. KMBC.com. 27 Jan.
2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2010.
Local news coverage of an Indian gas station owner in Excelsior Springs, Missouri who has
become the victim of a Facebook smear campaign. While viral messages usually target celebrities
or political figures, this demonstrates how they can be used against average citizens and the effects
it can have on the victims daily life.
Lannen, Andrew. "Facebook 'Automation Labs' Warning" Facebook. Hoax-Slayer group.
3 Feb. 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2010.
Lannen, Andrew. "Facebook 'Automation Labs' Warning" Facebook. Hoax-Slayer group.
3 Feb. 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2010.
This entry is a post on an Australian Facebook discussion board regarding the effects of the Automation
Labs Hoax on those whose names came up in Facebook's suggestive search. Those parties received
threatening and harassing messages through Facebook, leading to the decision to by Facebook to block the
viral message server side.
Lee, Alfred McClung, Elizabeth Briant Lee. The Fine Art of Propaganda. San Franciso:
International Society for General Semantics, 1939. Print.
Lee, Alfred McClung, Elizabeth Briant Lee. The Fine Art of Propaganda. San Franciso:
International Society for General Semantics, 1939. Print.
This book discusses propaganda, and specifically the highly emotionally charged language used in it. This
language is also typical in viral messages and this source will be used to compare the radio messages of Nazi
sympathizer Father Coughlin which are analyzed in this work to several popular viral messages which have travelled
over Facebook and through electronic mail forwards.
Feb. 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2010.
Lieben-Nowell, David, Jon Kleinberg. "Tracing Information Flow on a Global Scale
Using Internet Chain-Letter Data." Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
of the United States of America. 105.12 (2008): 4633 - 4638. Wilson. Web. 10 Feb.
2010.
Using Internet Chain-Letter Data." Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
of the United States of America. 105.12 (2008): 4633 - 4638. Wilson. Web. 10 Feb.
2010.
The only extant study of this phenomena. Lieben-Nowell and Kleinberg look at two internet petitions and
model the number of people who received, signed and forwarded these petitions.
Make-A-Wish Foundation. "Chain Letters." Make-A-Wish Foundation. n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.
The Make-A-Wish foundation's educational page regarding chain letters. It identifies a number of hoaxes which involve
the organization, discuss some of the negative effects these messages have caused and suggest how to deal with
receiving such a message. This source will be used in examining the responses of groups that have been targeted by
viral messages, and how effective their response was.
Meredith, Leslie. "Facebook Hoax May Be Clever Marketing Ploy." MSNBC. MSNBC. 4 Feb. 2010. Web. 5 Feb. 2010.
Coverage of the Automation Hoax by CNBC. This source will be used in examining the claim that the hoax was a
form of viral marketing.
Mikkelson, Barabara, David P. Mikkelson. Snopes. Snopes.com. n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2010.
A website devoted to collecting, examining and debunking rumors, and urban legends on the internet. This source
provides the largest library of viral messages sent by email anywhere and analyses of those messages. It also tracks the
popularity of these messages.
Otterman, Sharon. "E-Mail Hoax Raises Hopes Of a Day Off." New York Times 5 Jan.
2010: A18(L). Academic OneFile. Web. 11 Feb. 2010.
Otterman, Sharon. "E-Mail Hoax Raises Hopes Of a Day Off." New York Times 5 Jan.
2010: A18(L). Academic OneFile. Web. 11 Feb. 2010.
A New York Times account of a school disrupted by a viral message that was then spread further by students. An anonymous
hoaxer emailed students in the guise of an administration official, calling off school for the next day. Students further circulated
the message on Twitter, Facebook, MySpace and electronic mail.
Roeper, Richard. Urban Legends: The Truth Behind All Those Deliciously Entertaining
Myths That Are Absolutely, Positively, 100% Not True. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career,
1999. NetLibrary. Web. 7 Feb. 2010.
Myths That Are Absolutely, Positively, 100% Not True. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career,
1999. NetLibrary. Web. 7 Feb. 2010.
This source details a cautionary viral message, and which will be used as an example of the type.
Strachey, Lytton. Eminent Victorians. New York: Penguin, 1986. Print.
This source details two of the earliest historical viral messages, a chain letter and a message mangled in transmission. This source
will be used to provide historical context and demonstrate the increasingly complicated web of senders and receivers.
United States. Agency Group 09. "EMAIL HOAX FLOUTS POLICY." Washington:
FDCH, 1999. EBSCO. 7 Feb. 2010.
FDCH, 1999. EBSCO. 7 Feb. 2010.
This press release which was written on behalf of the United States Marine Corps, details their policy on electronic media and discusses
some of the problems that organization has had with viral message traffic. This will be used as an example of how large organizations deal
with this problem, and will be used to asess the effectiveness of various strategies.
Watzlawick, Paul. How Real is Real? New York: Vintage, 1976. Print.
This source discusses communication in the context of philosophy, and in how human beings perceive the world around them. This source
will be used to provide detail on mistranslation, which is what happens when a message is garbled or otherwise modified beyond what the original
communication intended. It discusses several incidents of mass hysteria which are comparable to present day viral messages and the public reactions
to those messages. It also provides insight into why many senders who are otherwise not credulous in their daily lives may be fooled by electronic mail
or social media posting.
